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KeyNet Project
Trainers Guide
2. The learning-teaching framework
2.1 The Context
The
KeyNet Project addresses the issue of the extent to which and
how 'key skills' can be used to improve the 'employability' prospects
of two groups in the population:
young
people aged 16-25;
the
older, 40+, long term unemployed.
The Project has therefore had to consider three main issues:
After considerable discussion it was agreed by all the partners that they comprise the following - communication, application of number, information technology, problem solving, working with others, improving own learning and performance. It was also agreed that entrepreneurship be added because of its increasing importance in economic development strategies generally.
The target groups suggest a variety of training contexts ranging from:
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school (for the younger individuals in the 16-25 group);
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college, for the older members of this group on formal courses;
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'drop-in centres', 'IT greenhouses', etc. for those of any age who have recently lost their jobs;
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the longer term unemployed who may be socially or geographically isolated.
Research work undertaken in the four partner countries suggests that carefully designed teaching-learning programmes aimed at improving individual key skills of the two target group do generally improve their employment prospects. BUT real success is only achieved if the teachers and trainers themselves are given valid and relevant training in the delivery of key skills.
Discussions during the course of the Project involving most trainers and employers suggested that effective training programmes are most likely to be produced if the following questions are addressed by both developer and trainer: is not enough just to develop key skills training programmes in which the trainee or employee acquires 'a' key skill. The trainee, trainer and employer must be able to answer the following questions:
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2.2 An approach to the design of a key skill training programme
The KeyNet Project suggests that the role of the teacher/trainer is to provide learners with opportunities and incentives to learn, emphasising that, among other things -
learning requires the learner to actively construct meaning.
students/trainees' prior understanding and thoughts about
a topic or concept before instruction begins have a great influence
on what they learn during the instruction or training programme.
the teacher /trainer's main aim is to bring about a change
in the learner's thought processes or way of viewing and organising
the 'world'.
learning in co-operation with others is an important source
of motivation, support, modelling and coaching.
.Key skills teaching-learning programmes are best based upon the
principle that individuals learn by constructing meaning relative to
themselves and through interpretative interactions with their social
environment. In traditional approaches to teaching and learning, textbooks
and lecture provide the 'truth'. There is little room for questioning,
independent thought, or learner interaction. This is a 'constructionist'
view of instructional design. It encompasses discussion on the meaning
of knowledge itself, as well as how it is constructed and learned, and
how it is related to such philosophical concepts as 'social contsructionism'
and 'constructivism'.
CONCLUSION AND PROPOSED ACTION
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The
KeyNet Project believes that the approach described above best
meets the needs of those targeted in this Project and the challenges
of delivering a key skills programme. In fact, key skills are
an ideal vehicle for developing each individual's general abilities
and skills.
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Each of these types of assessment is considered in some detail, including a description of their use by trainers and employers in the partner countries, together with their relative strengths and weaknesses. Clearly, both trainees, the unemployed, trainers and employers are very much aware of the costs and administrative burdens of formal assessment. These issues are considered in this Guide.
2.3 Teaching-learning strategies
The design of instruction based on this approach shifts instructional emphasis from the passive learning of formally organized specific content to the active acquisition and use of knowledge. Interventions by the teacher/trainer are designed to assist trainees to construct meaning, not to memorize information. Instruction needs to be 'contextualized', that is, situated in 'real' settings, which are rich in context and reflecting the real world.
Instruction must be designed to help students to develop learning strategies, to make inferences, to elaborate and reflect on the knowledge that is being presented, to generate relationships between what they already know and what they are learning, and to monitor their own performance. Activity and application are considered to be the main ways in which learners build internal mental representations, which conform to real uses of knowledge. All trainees may not learn the same information and skills to the same degree, since learning is highly individualistic. As a result, individuals use their own experiences and cognitive structures to construct meaning. This is a paradigm or approach, which we will apply later on in assessing key skills.
CONCLUSION
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The
training strategies selected for developing and assessing key
skills should reflect on the question "How can the most meaningful
learning take place?" rather than "What is the most important
content to learn?"
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2.4 Linking our training to the way our brains work
The Project believes that teachers and trainers must be aware of current research on the way the brain functions. This is especially important in the case of the target groups, where it is unusual for the student or trainee to be present in a 'class' of students. They are more likely to work in small groups, feature in drop in situations, or work alone. It is suggested, therefore, that there are five concepts or principles that need to be taken into account:
Caine and Caine (1990) have identified a number of principles associated with brain-based learning. These principles may link a constructivist approach to teaching and learning with brain functions. Five of these concepts are summarized below.
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The brain performs many functions at the same time The brain simultaneously processes a range of thoughts, feelings, visual images. To teach in accordance with this concept of 'parallel processing', teaching strategies must be designed to orchestrate them effectively. Visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory learning preferences of each learner should be accommodated through the provision of multifaceted learning activities. The result? Charts, posters, and other visuals can be used to support the learning process since the brain also absorbs information that is peripheral as well as central to its focus. Training practices should draw upon a variety of tools to stimulate brain functioning. The training strategies selected for developing and assessing key skills should reflect on the question "How can the most meaningful learning take place?" rather than "What is the most important content to learn?" |
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The brain reflects the body's physiological and psychological state Nutrition, exercise, eating habits, and other reflections of health influence the brain's ability to function and, hence, the individual's ability to learn. The same is true for emotions as they have a great influence on the brain's ability to recall information. Emotional stress, however, can hamper learning. Therefore, learning environments must be non-threatening, supportive, and encourage mutual respect and acceptance. Caine and Caine (1990) note that 'the brain learns optimally when appropriately challenged, but downshifts under perceived threat.' The result? Learning is most effective in a supportive environment in which learners and teachers are engaged collaboratively in the construction of knowledge. |
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The brain searches for meaning The brain resists having bits and fragments of insignificant information imposed upon it. It searches to create meaningful patterns by connecting relevant bits of information. Trainers can facilitate this process by allowing trainees to extract their own patterns, rather than asking them to repeat patterns imposed on them. Reflection can facilitate this search for meaningful patterns when it involves the trainee in a pattern of thinking about what has been learned, how that learning has occurred, and why and how learning should continue. Journal writing and portfolio development are strategies that draw upon the brain's search for meaning when it is designed to move the learner beyond the limits of observing and recording experiences and requires them to make meaning out of what is expressed. The result? Learning strategies should provide trainees with the opportunity to create meaningful experiences out of their learning programmes. |
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The brain registers experiences automatically Memory is another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for teaching and learning. The brain registers experiences automatically. Facts and skills, however, are registered differently, requiring repetition, rehearsal, and other strategies for memorization. The result? Learning is facilitated when facts and skills are connected to experiences. Having trainees measure things in the classroom to arrange the physical space is an example of an activity to invoke spatial memory in the context of a real life experience. |
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The brain remembers best when facts are embedded in ordinary experiences According to Auerbach's (1989) 'socio-contextual model', cultural and social practices are key considerations in the development of learning. This is based on the proposition that people learn best when the learning is meaningful to them and situated in the context of their social environment. The result? Drawing upon cultural practices, family traditions, and other personal experiences of the learner can promote brain functioning. Learning is facilitated by the sharing of experiences between individuals. |
2.5 The designs of key skills training programmes
Applying these ideas and concepts to instructional designs is especially appealing for trainers who are trying to prepare trainees with skills that will enable them to succeed in a workplace that is characterized by diversity, competition, quality management practices, and teamwork. These concepts require trainers to modify their instruction, curriculum, and assessment practices, as well as their perspectives on what constitutes authentic learning. What are these possible modifications? They are summarised in the diagram below.
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Instruction The first instructional modification concerns time allocation for teaching and learning. We must break away from practices where time is rigidly specified by training administrators and allow a flexible time plan for trainees to work together, solve problems, study in depth application issues; and for trainers to respond to each trainee's effort to construct knowledge.
New trainer and trainee roles Modification must also apply to the roles of trainer and trainee. The trainer becomes coach, mentor, and guide. Trainees on the other hand resume a more active role in their own training. The trainer plans activities needed to solve problems, and trainees execute the activity while articulating their thought processes (doing while thinking). The trainer 'coaches' each trainee with physical aids and supporting materials, gradually decreasing assistance and letting the trainee to slowly take over the learning process. Eventually the trainee learns how to think for himself, and not wait for the trainer to tell him what to think or for explicit trainer directions.
New understandings and knowledge construction Another modification requires the trainer to attain trainee understanding through social construction of knowledge. S/he guides the trainee towards an activity that is meaningful to him in pursuing new knowledge. It is during this activity that the trainee has an opportunity to think and reflect upon what is happening and what is being learned. During the sharing of new knowledge with fellow trainees, the learner is able to engage to social interaction and obtain feedback from others. |
2.6 Designing the teaching programme
Research carried out during the life of the KeyNet Project indicates quite strongly that the most effective teaching programmes draw upon the ideas and approaches outlined above. This means that key skill development programmes must be set in two wider contexts than training itself:
The overall programme should pursue the merging
of training with its career and vocational application in the
workplace. For example:
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But there is another dimension. Training cannot be
limited to the training facility setting : it must be placed in
the wider world of the community. Connections must be made
with as many aspects of the 'community', and they should involve
more than the mere placement of trainees to work experience programs.
To design effective training programs that combine experiential,
contextual, and social methods of learning it is imperative to
engage trainers, representatives of local business and industry,
and as wide a representation of members of the community as possible.
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Inputs
from the training Centre and/or Workplace
Trainee+Trainer
The
Community |
In bringing these inputs together, it is clear that the design of the curriculum should reflect principles that facilitate meaningful and effective knowledge construction. Some characteristics of such teaching and learning principles, which may apply to key skills training environments, could be as follows:
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Murphy, 1997a. |
In addition to these general factors, the trainer should be aware of the importance of the individual trainer her/himself. As a result, the curriculum or teaching/training programme should draw upon all dimensions of learning - perceptual, cognitive, and affective. Learners are unique and they have individual learning preferences. Not all people learn the same way. Accordingly, it is suggested (Brown ,1998c.) that the characteristics of the three learning dimensions are as follows:
Perceptual dimension
This learning style is influenced by physical and environmental
elements. The physical elements are visual, auditory, tactile,
and kinesthetic. Research shows that most people learn best through
experiencing, doing, and involvement (kinesthetic learners), especially
when reinforcement is offered through touching, manipulating,
and handling (tactile senses).
Cognitive
dimension
Cognitive styles of learning refer to ways people process information.
The processing (Kolb, 1984) is cyclical and the learner
moves from concrete experiences, to reflective observations, to
abstract conceptualization, and, finally, to active experimentation.
Affective
dimension
The
affective dimension of learning is reflected in the social interaction
of learners in the classroom, training centre, drop-in centre
or workplace, and deals with the elements of emotion, valuing,
and behavior.
In conclusion, it is clear that few people learn by thinking and watching; most people learn best by feeling and doing, through "interpersonal communication, sharing, mutual support, team processes, and positive reinforcement (Hull, 1993).
CONCLUSION
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Training
practices should incorporate all four styles of learning-thinking,
watching, experiencing, and doing.
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2.7 Designing an appropriate assessment programme
Effective assessment methods should include the measurement of learning that has value beyond the classroom and that it is meaningful to the learner. 'Conventional' forms of assessment (multiple choice tests, true/false examinations, essay writing etc.) generally measure the 'knowing that' and hardly the 'knowing how', or how to integrate learning into 'doing. 'Authentic' measures of learning require trainees to demonstrate competence through performance. Trainees are assessed with up front performance criteria, as occurs in a real workplace. Some authentic forms of assessment are portfolios, journal writing, trainee shadowing, and peer reviews. If trainers are resistant to non-traditional methods of assessing trainees, they may be persuaded to augment and broaden the methods they feel comfortable in using, with some authentic measures. Hopefully, trainee positive reaction will convince them eventually of the value of authentic assessment methods.
Effective assessment methods should offer opportunities for complementary learning. It is recommended (Marlow and Page, 1998) that, in order to create instruments that move the learner beyond recall and recognition, each assessment should be framed so that:
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WJEC NREC |
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by: UK: WJEC, NREC Germany: BILSE (Institute for Education and Research), Economic Development Company Greece: PRISMA Sweden: Swedish University Agricultural Department, Hogsby Municipality, Sweden |
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Project carried out with the support of the European Community within the framework of the Leonardo da Vinci Programme. This document does not necessarily represent the Commission's official position. |
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